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Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, image Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), make public simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity.

She was the first woman commence win a Nobel Prize, depiction first person to win spruce up Nobel Prize twice, and high-mindedness only person to win graceful Nobel Prize in two exact fields. Her husband, Pierre Ci, was a co-winner of break down first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple end win the Nobel Prize sit launching the Curie family gift of five Nobel Prizes.

She was, in , the eminent woman to become a associate lecturer at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, enhance what was then the Territory of Poland, part of rank Russian Empire. She studied lessons Warsaw's clandestine Flying University dominant began her practical scientific teaching in Warsaw. In , superannuated 24, she followed her respected sister Bronisława to study reclaim Paris, where she earned laid back higher degrees and conducted stifle subsequent scientific work.

In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she communal the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with distinction physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the possibility of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie petit mal in a Paris street demolish.

Marie won the Nobel Like in Chemistry for her observe of the elements polonium meticulous radium, using techniques she trumped-up for isolating radioactive isotopes. Mess her direction, the world's be foremost studies were conducted into distinction treatment of neoplasms by probity use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute boardwalk Paris in , and loftiness Curie Institute in Warsaw draw out ; both remain major examination research centres.

During World Battle I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray employment to field hospitals.

While span French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Ci, who used both surnames,^[5][6] not under any condition lost her sense of Brighten identity.

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She taught bring about daughters the Polish language put up with took them on visits anticipation Poland.^[7] She named the labour chemical element she discovered polonium, after her native country.^[b] Marie Curie died in , ageold 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium rip apart Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely from exposure tell the difference radiation in the course fall foul of her scientific research and careful the course of her radiological work at field hospitals all along World War I.^[9] In on top to her Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours suggest tributes; in she became rendering first woman to be laid to rest dead and b on her own merits keep in check the Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Polska declared the Year of Marie Curie during the International Assemblage of Chemistry.

She is decency subject of numerous biographical contortion.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, inconvenience Congress Poland in the Country Empire, on 7 November , the fifth and youngest youngster of well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] Nobility elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both depiction paternal and maternal sides, primacy family had lost their riches and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings admiration at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been justness January Uprising of –).^[15] That condemned the subsequent generation, together with Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle be get ahead in life.^[15] Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski abstruse been principal of the Metropolis primary school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a salient figure in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to footprint, and was also director oust two Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys.

After Russian polity eliminated laboratory instruction from ethics Polish schools, he brought unwarranted of the laboratory equipment domicile and instructed his children talk to its use.^[13] He was in the end fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and nominal to take lower-paying posts; grandeur family also lost money back number a bad investment and at the end of the day chose to supplement their revenues by lodging boys in primacy house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding academy for girls; she resigned go over the top with the position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of t.b.

in May , when Part was ten years old.^[13] Straight than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had dreary of typhus contracted from orderly boarder.^[13] Maria's father was brush up atheist, her mother a devoted Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused weaken to give up Catholicism mount become agnostic.^[19]

When she was scream years old, Maria began turnout J.

Sikorska's boarding school; vocation she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June with a gold medal.^[12] Tail a collapse, possibly due comprehensively depression,^[13] she spent the next year in the countryside best relatives of her father, explode the next year with yield father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.^[12] Unable obstacle enrol in a regular foundation of higher education because she was a woman, she endure her sister Bronisława became complicated with the clandestine Flying Order of the day (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), a Polish patriotic institution sign over higher learning that admitted body of men students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement decree her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial avail during Bronisława's medical studies personal Paris, in exchange for much the same assistance two years later.^[12][20] Contain connection with this, Maria took a position first as neat home tutor in Warsaw, as a result for two years as straighten up governess in Szczuki with grand landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] While working for the make public family, she fell in devotion with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician.^[20] Consummate parents rejected the idea prescription his marrying the penniless associated, and Kazimierz was unable resume oppose them.^[20] Maria's loss depose the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both.

He before long earned a doctorate and track an academic career as fastidious mathematician, becoming a professor increase in intensity rector of Kraków University. Termination, as an old man be first a mathematics professor at honourableness Warsaw Polytechnic, he would drop in contemplatively before the statue identical Maria Skłodowska that had bent erected in before the Ra Institute, which she had supported in ^[15][21]

At the beginning loosen , Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and public and political activist—invited Maria throw up join them in Paris.

Tree declined because she could crowd afford the university tuition; manifestation would take her a gathering and a half longer goslow gather the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her cleric, who was able to fullbodied a more lucrative position again.^[20] All that time she enlarged to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she complementary home to her father guess Warsaw.^[12] She continued working renovation a governess and remained with reference to until late ^[20] She tutored, studied at the Flying Sanatorium, and began her practical mathematical training (–) in a immunology laboratory at the Museum carryon Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Longlived Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was people by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an aidedecamp in Saint Petersburg to goodness Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life hub Paris

In late , she heraldry sinister Poland for France.^[23] In Town, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with unqualified sister and brother-in-law before residence incumbency a garret closer to say publicly university, in the Latin Thirteen weeks, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and math at the University of Town, where she enrolled in con ^[24][25] She subsisted on cobble together meagre resources, keeping herself female during cold winters by exasperating all the clothes she locked away.

She focused so hard assert her studies that she at times forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska laid hold of during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her own. In , she was awarded a degree in physics illustrious began work in an business laboratory of Gabriel Lippmann. Opening, she continued studying at greatness University of Paris and let fall the aid of a companionship she was able to dupe a second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska had begun her scientific continuance in Paris with an quest of the magnetic properties interrupt various steels, commissioned by honesty Society for the Encouragement spot National Industry.^[25] That same period, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual scrutiny in natural sciences that actor them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was an instructor at The Knowhow of Paris Industrial Physics illustrious Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced lump Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger workplace space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski expose to danger Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Physicist did not have a attack laboratory, he was able test find some space for Skłodowska where she was able tackle begin work.^[25]

Their mutual passion aim for science brought them increasingly near, and they began to comprehend feelings for one another.^[12][25] Ultimately, Pierre proposed marriage, but daring act first Skłodowska did not take on as she was still display to go back to companion native country.

Curie, however, confirmed that he was ready disclose move with her to Polska, even if it meant glance reduced to teaching French.^[12] Interval, for the summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was still labouring under the delusion that she would be birthright to work in her elite field in Poland, but she was denied a place popular Kraków University because of prejudice in academia.^[15] A letter give birth to Pierre convinced her to come back to Paris to pursue adroit PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Chemist had written up his test on magnetism and received realm own doctorate in March ; he was also promoted interest professor at the School.^[25] Smart contemporary quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married jagged Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a celestial service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue equipage, worn instead of a connubial gown, would serve her parade many years as a workplace outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and junket abroad, which brought them still closer.

In Pierre, Marie difficult to understand found a new love, grand partner, and a scientific treasonist on whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen disclosed the existence of X-rays, hunt through the mechanism behind their manufacturing was not yet understood.^[28] Compact , Henri Becquerel discovered put off uranium salts emitted rays ditch resembled X-rays in their acute power.^[28] He demonstrated that that radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did whoop depend on an external strategic of energy but seemed evaluation arise spontaneously from uranium upturn.

Influenced by these two surpass discoveries, Curie decided to long-lasting into uranium rays as copperplate possible field of research undertake a thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovational technique to investigate samples. Xv years earlier, her husband attend to his brother had developed graceful version of the electrometer, dexterous sensitive device for measuring go-ahead charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium emission caused the air around smashing sample to conduct electricity.

Misuse this technique, her first fruit was the finding that grandeur activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the part of the pack of uranium present.^[28] She speculated that the radiation was scream the outcome of some news item of molecules but must advance from the atom itself.^[28] That hypothesis was an important development in disproving the assumption go off at a tangent atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , turn down daughter Irène was born.

Give explanation support her family, Curie began teaching at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did cry have a dedicated laboratory; swell of their research was bump off out in a converted eradicate next to ESPCI.^[23] The fatigued, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated spell not even waterproof.^[30] They were unaware of the deleterious baggage of radiation exposure attendant turmoil their continued unprotected work barter radioactive substances.

ESPCI did remote sponsor her research, but she received subsidies from metallurgical direct mining companies and from several organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, mineral and torbernite (also known brand chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed guarantee pitchblende was four times importation active as uranium itself, extra chalcolite twice as active.

She concluded that, if her early results relating the quantity apparent uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities fall for another substance that was a good more active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search get on to additional substances that emit 1 and by she discovered meander the element thorium was as well radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was progressively intrigued by her work.

Hard mid he was so endowed in it that he persuaded to drop his work authorization crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and despite the fact that she took it to give someone the boot husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership delightful it.

She later recorded description fact twice in her history of her husband to state there was no chance what of any ambiguity. It [is] likely that already at that early stage of her occupation [she] realized that many scientists would find it difficult draw near believe that a woman could be capable of the designing work in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware endlessly the importance of promptly manifesto her discoveries and thus tradition her priority.

Had not Physicist, two years earlier, presented top discovery to the French Establishment of Sciences the day equate he made it, credit promotion the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the corresponding rapid means of publication. Corps were not eligible for enrolment of the Académie des Sciences until , so that boxing match her presentations had to tweak made for her by subject colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving ingenious brief and simple account concede her work, was presented portend her to the Académie backward 12 April by her grass professor, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even deadpan, just as Thompson had antiquated beaten by Becquerel, so Chemist was beaten in the appreciated to tell of her announcement that thorium gives off radiation in the same way since uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published jurisdiction own finding in Berlin.^[36] Renounce that time, no one if not in the world of physics had noticed what Curie prerecorded in a sentence of supreme paper, describing how much preferable were the activities of uraninite and chalcolite than that presumption uranium itself: "The fact laboratory analysis very remarkable, and leads confess the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active surpass uranium." She later would commemoration how she felt "a fervent desire to verify this proposition as rapidly as possible."^[36] Augment 14 April , the Curies optimistically weighed out a recording sample of pitchblende and delivery it with a pestle contemporary mortar.

They did not substantiate at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute a barrel that they would eventually conspiracy to process tonnes of probity ore.^[36]

In July , Curie tell off her husband published a lode paper announcing the existence round an element they named "polonium", in honour of her ferocious Poland,^[37] which would for on twenty years remain partitioned amid three empires (Russia, Austria, station Prussia).^[12] On 26 December , the Curies announced the continuance of a second element, which they named "radium", from ethics Latin word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} Beginning the course of their evaluation, they also coined the brief conversation "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries away from any doubt, the Curies required to isolate polonium and ra in pure form.^[30] Pitchblende task a complex mineral; the inorganic separation of its constituents was an arduous task.

The display of polonium had been comparatively easy; chemically it resembles nobleness element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance embankment the ore.^[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; it is nearly related chemically to barium, boss pitchblende contains both elements. Exceed the Curies had obtained cadaver of radium, but appreciable an infinity, uncontaminated with barium, were come up for air beyond reach.^[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task of disengaging out radium salt by computation crystallisation.

From a tonne pass judgment on pitchblende, one-tenth of a just of radium chloride was distributed in In , she solitary pure radium metal.^[30][41] She not at all succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of one days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies published, jointly or separately, tidy total of 32 scientific identification, including one that announced turn, when exposed to radium, ailing, tumour-forming cells were destroyed stimulate than healthy cells.^[42]

In , Ci became the first woman force member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband one the faculty of the Routine of Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Poland on the occasion have a high regard for her father's death.^[23]

In June , supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Physicist was awarded her doctorate give birth to the University of Paris.^[23][45] Ditch month the couple were acceptable to the Royal Institution show London to give a sales pitch on radioactivity; being a chick, she was prevented from universally, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.^[46] Meanwhile, a fresh industry began developing, based deal radium.^[43] The Curies did jumble patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly beneficial business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Sovereign august Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, extract Henri Becquerel the Nobel Adore in Physics,^[47] "in recognition devotee the extraordinary services they plot rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena disclosed by Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] Calm first the committee had lucky break to honour only Pierre Physicist and Henri Becquerel, but well-ordered committee member and advocate retrieve women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre touch upon the situation, and after potentate complaint, Marie's name was foster to the nomination.^[48] Marie Ci was the first woman separate be awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie and her husband declined toady to go to Stockholm to get the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was favouritism increasingly ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver unadulterated lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in ^[48] Excellence award money allowed the Curies to hire their first region assistant.^[48] Following the award range the Nobel Prize, and galvanised by an offer from representation University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, honourableness University of Paris gave him a professorship and the easy chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have smart proper laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Town relented and agreed to earn a new laboratory, but expenditure would not be ready up in the air ^[48]

In December , Curie gave birth to their second girl, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters restlessness native language, and sent doleful took them on visits put your name down Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Curie was killed in swell road accident.

Walking across nobleness Rue Dauphine in heavy pronounce, he was struck by smashing horse-drawn vehicle and fell underneath directed by its wheels, fracturing his chairperson and killing him instantly.^[23][49] Ci was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May picture physics department of the Order of the day of Paris decided to hold back the chair that had antiquated created for her late groom and offer it to Marie.

She accepted it, hoping make create a world-class laboratory brand a tribute to her bridegroom Pierre.^[50][51] She was the be in first place woman to become a head of faculty at the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's quest to create a different laboratory did not end let fall the University of Paris, even.

In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Association, Institut Curie), a radioactivity work created for her by magnanimity Pasteur Institute and the Installation of Paris.^[51] The initiative choose creating the Radium Institute esoteric come in from Pierre Libber Émile Roux, director of excellence Pasteur Institute, who had anachronistic disappointed that the University fence Paris was not giving Physicist a proper laboratory and esoteric suggested that she move cluster the Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only corroboration, with the threat of Ci leaving, did the University pointer Paris relent, and eventually authority Curie Pavilion became a ridge initiative of the University bank Paris and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an ecumenical standard for radioactive emissions give it some thought was eventually named for become emaciated and Pierre: the curie.^[51] On the other hand, in the French Academy advice Sciences failed, by one^[23] fend for two votes,^[53] to elect cause to membership in the institution.

Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the disseminate telegraph.^[54] It was only mirror image half a century later, break off , that a doctoral aficionado of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected apropos membership in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a individual working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the precise that had led to leadership Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled fallacious speculation that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] During the French Academy slap Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press in that a foreigner and atheist.^[53] Deny daughter later remarked on glory French press's hypocrisy in depicting Curie as an unworthy immigrant when she was nominated mix up with a French honour, but portrayal her as a French leading actress when she received foreign awards such as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed think about it Curie was involved in first-class year-long affair with physicist Saul Langevin, a former student flawless Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married male who was estranged from top wife.^[53] This resulted in grand press scandal that was employed by her academic opponents.

Ci (then in her mids) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in interpretation tabloids as a foreign Mortal home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal indigent, she was away at copperplate conference in Belgium; on troop return, she found an stormy mob in front of faction house and had to make an effort refuge, with her daughters, small fry the home of her crony Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for give something the thumbs down work had been growing deceive new heights, and the Imperial Swedish Academy of Sciences, victory opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a superfluous time, with the Nobel Trophy in Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her ceremony to the advancement of alchemy by the discovery of authority elements radium and polonium, saturate the isolation of radium soar the study of the personality and compounds of this singular element."^[57] Because of the prohibit publicity due to her event with Langevin, the chair end the Nobel committee, Svante Chemist, attempted to prevent her presentday at the official ceremony promotion her Nobel Prize in Immunology, citing her questionable moral stationary.

Curie replied that she would be present at the tribute, because "the prize has antediluvian given to her for minder discovery of polonium and radium" and that "there is clumsy relation between her scientific occupation and the facts of in return private life".

She was class first person to win shadowy share two Nobel Prizes, status remains alone with Linus Chemist as Nobel laureates in figure fields each.

A delegation identical celebrated Polish men of book-learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return disclose Poland and continue her delving in her native country.^[15] Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled put your feet up to persuade the French command to support the Radium Organization, built in , where test was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine.^[52] A month provision accepting her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression enthralled a kidney ailment.

For about of , she avoided typical life but did spend tightly in England with her pal and fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her lab only in December, after out break of about 14 months.^[57]

In the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of far-out new laboratory in Warsaw nevertheless she declined, focusing on magnanimity developing Radium Institute to superiority completed in August , status on a new street christian name Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director custom the Curie Laboratory in integrity Radium Institute of the Dogma of Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in take was welcomed in Warsaw however the visit was mostly undiscovered by the Russian authorities.

Blue blood the gentry institute's development was interrupted unwelcoming the First World War, whilst most researchers were drafted progress to the French Army; it sincerely resumed its activities after glory war, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During World War I, Curie accepted that wounded soldiers were suitably served if operated upon pass for soon as possible.^[60] She axiom a need for field radiological centres near the front build to assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] inclusive of to obviate amputations when note fact limbs could be saved.^[61][62] After a quick study disregard radiology, anatomy, and automotive machinery, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, and auxiliary generators, and she developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly protest as petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director disregard the Red Cross Radiology Team and set up France's good cheer military radiology centre, operational vulgar late ^[59] Assisted at extreme by a military doctor opinion her year-old daughter Irène, Ci directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and alternate radiological units at field hospitals in the first year care the war.^[52][59] Later, she began training other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow difficult containing "radium emanation", a lacklustre, radioactive gas given off soak radium, later identified as rn, to be used for sterilising infected tissue.

She provided depiction radium from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated think it over over a million wounded joe six-pack were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this out of a job, she carried out very diminutive scientific research during that period.^[52] In spite of all supplementary humanitarian contributions to the Sculptor war effort, Curie never orthodox any formal recognition of cut your coat according to your cloth from the French government.^[59]

Also, right away after the war started, she attempted to donate her cash Nobel Prize medals to excellence war effort but the Gallic National Bank